Language, when you need it

Soften absolute claims with degree adverbs (broadly, largely), modals (would, tend to) and frequency phrases (more often than not).

After a negative or restrictive adverbial in front position, invert subject and auxiliary: Never have I seen… / Not only does it…, but…

Split a clause to foreground new information: 'It was the deadline that worried me.' / 'What surprised us was the cost.'

Move a non-subject element to the front for emphasis: 'Down the corridor walked the inspector.' / 'Such ideas we rarely hear today.'

Perfect = looking back from a reference point. Choose present / past / future perfect by which time-point you're looking back from.

Use 'must / can't / might / could + have + p.p.' to deduce or speculate about the past; 'will/would' for confident present deduction.

Mixed: past condition → present result ('If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now'). Inverted: drop 'if' and invert ('Had I known…').

Reporting passive: 'It is said that…' / 'She is believed to have…'. Causative: 'have / get + object + p.p.' = arranging for someone to do it.

Defining = essential, no commas. Non-defining = extra info, with commas, no 'that'. Reduce with -ing / -ed for elegance.

Turn verbs/adjectives into nouns for formal register and density: 'They decided quickly' → 'Their swift decision'.

Hold long texts together with pronouns ('this', 'such'), ellipsis (cutting repeated words) and substitution ('do so', 'one').

Signal stance, contrast, addition or concession: admittedly, mind you, having said that, on balance, all things considered.

Backshift tenses one step back. Use varied reporting verbs: claim, urge, deny, acknowledge, admit, point out, insist (+ patterns).

Build C1 forms with prefixes (mis-, over-, under-), suffixes (-ance, -ity, -ship), internal change (long → length) and zero-derivation.

Use 'whereas', 'while', 'although', 'despite + -ing/noun', 'much as', 'for all + noun' to balance ideas.

Match the form to the speaker's stance: will (decision/prediction), going to (intention/evidence), present continuous (arrangement), present simple (timetable), future continuous (in progress), future perfect (completed by).

Replace a finite clause with -ing (active), -ed (passive) or having + p.p. (perfect) to compress meaning: 'Walking into the room, she froze.' / 'Asked about it later, he refused to comment.'

After demand/insist/suggest/recommend + that, use the bare infinitive: 'It is essential that he be informed.' Formal 'should' is also common: 'They insisted that he should attend.'

Phrasal verbs (verb + particle) can be separable (turn it down) or inseparable (look after him). Many have a one-word Latinate equivalent (work out → calculate) — match register.

Some verbs change meaning with -ing vs to- infinitive: remember/forget/regret/try/stop/mean. Learn pairs: 'I remember locking the door' (memory of doing) vs 'Remember to lock the door' (a task).